This is the eighteenth installment of AJP's Spiritual Asia series exploring the religious traditions, philosophical ideas and moral foundations that have shaped Asia's civilizations. This chapter turns to Zoroastrianism, one of the world's oldest living faiths, and examines how its teachings on truth, free will and moral responsibility continue to resonate in an age increasingly shaped by artificial intelligence.
East Asian Political Philosophy Created by Theories of Human Nature as Good and Evil
After Confucius passed away, China entered an even greater upheaval. The order of the Spring and Autumn period collapsed, and the wars of the Warring States period were incessant. Feudal lords vied to conquer the world, and the people suffered amidst war and poverty. People began to ponder how to stabilize the nation and create a humane world. Against this historical backdrop, Confucianism developed beyond a philosophy of personal cultivation into a political philosophy for operating states and organizing society. At the center of this transformation stood two great thinkers, Mencius and Xunzi.
If Confucius presented the Tao that humans ought to walk, Mencius and Xunzi posed a more fundamental question: what exactly is a human being? Are humans inherently good, or are they driven by desire? This question was not a simple philosophical debate. An understanding of human nature was an understanding of politics, an understanding of education, and an understanding of how a state should be operated. If humans are inherently good, the role of politics is to help that goodness blossom; if humans are inherently swayed by desire, laws and institutions must control them. Ultimately, the debate between Mencius and Xunzi became the starting point of East Asian political philosophy, leaving a profound impact on the modern philosophies of democracy, the rule of law, education, and management.
Mencius was a thinker with deep trust in humanity. He believed that human nature is inherently good. This is the famous theory of original goodness. Mencius explained that if people walking down a road saw a young child about to fall into a well, anyone would feel alarmed and distressed. That feeling does not arise to gain profit or honor. It is a feeling that naturally arises in any human being. Mencius saw that the true essence of human nature is contained within this very heart.
He explained that four good sprouts exist within the human mind. The feeling of commiseration, which feels pity for others, is the beginning of benevolence; the feeling of shame and dislike, which feels ashamed of unrighteousness, is the beginning of righteousness; the feeling of deference and compliance, which yields and shows consideration, is the beginning of propriety; and the feeling of right and wrong, which judges right from wrong, is the beginning of wisdom. Mencius called these the Four Sprouts. He believed that everyone is born with these good possibilities and can cultivate them through education and self-discipline.
Mencius's philosophy extended to political thought. He viewed the people as the foundation of the state. His famous saying, "Min wei gui, she ji ci zhi, jun wei qing," means that the people are the most precious, the state comes next, and the ruler is the lightest. It is truly remarkable that such an argument emerged 2,500 years ago during an era ruled by absolute monarchs. Mencius valued the hearts of the people over the power of the ruler. He believed that a ruler who lost the support of the people could no longer retain legitimacy. He advocated kingly governance based on virtue over hegemonic governance based on force, asserting that the purpose of politics is to make the people prosperous and comfortable.
Mencius's ideas are significantly reflected in the core concepts of modern democracy, such as popular sovereignty, the welfare state, and human dignity. Although institutional democracy developed in the West, the people-oriented philosophy that placing the people at the center of the state was already proposed in the East long ago. In that sense, Mencius can be evaluated not merely as a Confucian scholar, but as one of the pioneers in the history of human political thought.
On the other hand, Xunzi viewed humanity more dispassionately. Experiencing the fierce reality of the late Warring States period, he concluded that human nature could not be viewed solely with optimism. Humans are born with desires. They covet wealth, demand power, and prioritize their own interests. He believed that leaving these desires unchecked would inevitably plunge society into chaos. Therefore, he argued that "human nature is evil." This is the theory of original evil.
However, Xunzi's theory of original evil should not be understood simply as a doctrine that views humans negatively. The evil Xunzi spoke of does not mean crime or depravity. It is an acknowledgment of the fact that humans are beings driven by desire. It meant that everyone possesses a self-centered tendency, and failing to govern this properly leads to conflict and confusion. Therefore, he argued that what humans need is education and training, and what society needs is laws and institutions.
Xunzi especially emphasized the importance of learning. He viewed humans not as complete beings at birth, but as beings that must constantly learn and cultivate themselves. He highlighted the power of acquired education by stating, "If one does not learn, one cannot become a Junzi." This realism of Xunzi heavily influenced the later Legalist thought of China. Han Feizi and Li Si, who transformed the Qin Dynasty into a unified state, are representative figures who absorbed Xunzi's academic influence. If Mencius believed in human conscience, Xunzi believed in the power of institutions. If Mencius was the philosopher of morality, Xunzi was the philosopher of order.
An interesting fact is that most successful nations and organizations throughout human history have utilized the philosophies of both Mencius and Xunzi in tandem. A nation that lacks trust in its citizens easily slides into dictatorship, while a nation without laws and institutions easily falls into disorder. The same principle applies to corporations. Members must be respected and trusted, but fair evaluations and clear discipline are simultaneously required. Schools must respect student autonomy while teaching basic norms and responsibilities. Ultimately, a healthy community becomes possible when Mencius's idealism and Xunzi's realism achieve equilibrium.
Here we discover another profound dimension of Confucianism. Confucianism did not exclusively assert human goodness nor exclusively assert human evil. Rather, it observed human potential and limitations simultaneously. Mencius saw the hope within humanity, while Xunzi saw the danger within humanity. These two perspectives did not collide, but served as two windows enabling a more multi-dimensional understanding of human existence.
The Doctrine of the Mean, one of the core scriptures of Confucianism, emphasizes precisely this spirit of balance. Achieving harmony without leaning toward either extreme is the exact Tao that humans and society should pursue. In fact, the enduring debate between original goodness and original evil ultimately forms one complete picture within the philosophy of the Mean. It brings the realization that humans are beings with good potential yet simultaneously beings with desires, making education and cultivation necessary while making institutions and laws equally necessary.
Today we live in an era of artificial intelligence and digital revolution. Technology advances daily and rapidly replaces human capabilities. Yet no matter how much technology develops, fundamental questions about human nature do not disappear. AI can calculate, but it cannot possess a conscience. Algorithms can predict, but they cannot bear moral responsibility. Even if superintelligence emerges, the sustaining force of human society will ultimately remain timeless values such as trust, responsibility, conscience, and moderation.
In that regard, Mencius and Xunzi are becoming even more crucial today. Mencius urges us not to lose hope in humanity, while Xunzi warns us to guard against human desire. Mencius emphasizes a warm heart, while Xunzi emphasizes a cool-headed system. And the Doctrine of the Mean teaches us to integrate the two harmoniously. Perhaps the greatest challenge confronting humanity in the 21st century is preserving human dignity amidst technological advancement.
The debate between Mencius and Xunzi that began on the Chinese mainland 2,500 years ago is not over yet. It lives on today within our politics, within our education, within corporate management, and within our families and communities. The question of whether humans are good or evil ultimately leads to the question of what kind of human beings we should become. And the most vital teaching Confucianism offers is the conviction that humans can become better beings through ceaseless cultivation and introspection.
If Confucius opened the Tao, Mencius planted hope, and Xunzi established order, the spirit of East Asian civilization that blossomed upon that foundation was ultimately human dignity. What matters more than the size of a nation is the dignity of its people; what matters more than technological advancement is human morality; and what matters more than the strength of power is the responsibility of leaders. Mencius and Xunzi were already teaching us this truth 2,500 years ago, a truth that will remain unchanged even in the AI era.
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